Electrical Contacts, 2nd Edition

Electrical Contacts, 2nd Edition

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Book description

Covering the theory, application, and testing of contact materials, Electrical Contacts: Principles and Applications, Second Edition introduces a thorough discussion on making electric contact and contact interface conduction; presents a general outline of, and measurement techniques for, important corrosion mechanisms; considers the results of contact wear when plug-in connections are made and broken; investigates the effect of thin noble metal plating on electronic connections; and relates crucial considerations for making high- and low-power contact joints. It examines contact use in switching devices, including the interruption of AC and DC circuits with currents in the range 10mA to 100kA and circuits up to 1000V, and describes arc formation between open contacts and between opening contacts. Arcing effects on contacts such as erosion, welding, and contamination are also addressed.

Containing nearly 3,000 references, tables, equations, figures, drawings, and photographs, the book provides practical examples encompassing everything from electronic circuits to high power circuits, or microamperes to mega amperes. The new edition:

With contributions from recognized experts in the field, Electrical Contacts: Principles and Applications, Second Edition assists practicing scientists and engineers in the prevention of costly system failures, as well as offers a comprehensive introduction to the subject for technology graduate students, by expanding their knowledge of electrical contact phenomena.

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Table of contents

  1. Cover
  2. Half Title
  3. Title Page
  4. Copyright Page
  5. Table of Contents
  6. Preface to the Second Edition
  7. Preface to the First Edition
  8. Introduction
  9. Editor
  10. Contributors
  11. Part I Contact Interface Conduction
    1. 1. Electrical Contact Resistance: Fundamental Principles
      1. 1.1 Introduction
      2. 1.2 Electrical Constriction Resistance
        1. 1.2.1 Circular a-spots
        2. 1.2.2 Non-Circular and Ring a-Spots
        3. 1.2.3 Multiple Contact Spots
        4. 1.2.4 Effect of the Shape of Contact Asperity on Constriction Resistance
        1. 1.3.1 Electrically Conductive Layers on an Insulated Substrate
          1. 1.3.1.1 Calculation of Spreading Resistance in a Thin Film
          1. 1.3.2.1 Electrically Conducting Layers and Thin Contaminant Films
          1. 1.3.5.1 Growth Rate and Electrical Resistivity of Oxides of Selected Contact Materials
          1. 1.4.1 Voltage–Temperature Relation
          2. 1.4.2 Voltage–Temperature Relation with Temperature-Dependent Electrical Resistivity and Thermal Conductivity
          3. 1.4.3 The Wiedemann–Franz Law
          4. 1.4.4 Temperature Distribution in the Vicinity of an a-Spot
          5. 1.4.5 Deviation of the Voltage–Temperature Relation in an Assymetric Contact
            1. 1.4.5.1 Case I: Two Metals in Contact
            2. 1.4.5.2 Case II: A Metal in Contact with a Non-metal
            1. 1.5.1 Smooth Interfaces
            2. 1.5.2 Rough Interfaces
            1. 1.6.1 Electrical Conduction in Small a-Spots
              1. 1.6.1.1 Contact Resistance
              2. 1.6.1.2 Joule Heat Flow through a-Spots
              1. 1.6.2.1 Experimental Data on Aluminum
              1. 1.7.1 Skin Depth and Constriction Resistance
              2. 1.7.2 Evaluation of Constriction Resistance at High Frequencies
              3. 1.7.3 Constriction versus Connection Resistance at High Frequencies
              1. 2.1 Introduction
              2. 2.2 Corrosion Rates
              3. 2.3 Corrosive Gases
              4. 2.4 Types of Corrosion
                1. 2.4.1 Dry Corrosion
                2. 2.4.2 Galvanic Corrosion
                3. 2.4.3 Pore Corrosion
                4. 2.4.4 Creep Corrosion
                5. 2.4.5 Metallic Electromigration
                6. 2.4.6 Stress Corrosion Cracking
                7. 2.4.7 Contacts under Mineral Oil
                1. 2.6.1 Weight Gain Measurement
                2. 2.6.2 Visual Inspection
                3. 2.6.3 Cathodic Reduction
                4. 2.6.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (SEM/EDAX)
                5. 2.6.5 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)
                6. 2.6.6 Other Techniques
                7. 2.6.7 Contact Resistance Measurements
                1. 2.8.1 Background
                2. 2.8.2 MFG Test Results
                1. 3.1 Introduction
                  1. 3.1.1 Scope
                  2. 3.1.2 Background
                  1. 3.2.1 Environmental Variables
                  2. 3.2.2 Corrosion Rates
                    1. 3.2.2.1 Copper and Silver
                    2. 3.2.2.2 Other Metals
                    3. 3.2.2.3 Film Effects
                    4. 3.2.2.4 Shielding Effects
                    1. 3.2.3.1 Severity versus Performance
                    2. 3.2.3.2 Environmental Classes
                    3. 3.2.3.3 Specifications
                    1. 3.2.4.1 Silver
                    2. 3.2.4.2 Copper
                    3. 3.2.4.3 Nickel
                    4. 3.2.4.4 Tin
                    5. 3.2.4.5 Porous Gold Coatings
                    6. 3.2.4.6 Pore Corrosion
                    7. 3.2.4.7 Corrosion Product Creep
                    1. 3.3.1 Objectives
                    2. 3.3.2 Definition of Acceleration Factor
                    3. 3.3.3 Historical Background
                    4. 3.3.4 Single-Gas Corrosion Effects
                      1. 3.3.4.1 Hydrogen Sulfide
                      2. 3.3.4.2 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
                      3. 3.3.4.3 Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
                      4. 3.3.4.4 Chlorine
                      5. 3.3.4.5 Mixed-Gas Sulfur Environments
                      6. 3.3.4.6 Humidity
                      7. 3.3.4.7 Temperature
                      8. 3.3.4.8 Gas Flow Effects
                      1. 3.3.5.1 Test Systems
                      2. 3.3.5.2 Monitoring Reactivity
                      1. 3.3.6.1 Electronic Connectors
                      2. 3.3.6.2 Mated versus Unmated Exposures
                      3. 3.3.6.3 Other Considerations
                      1. 4.1 Introduction
                        1. 4.1.1 Background
                        2. 4.1.2 The Importance of the Dust Problem
                        3. 4.1.3 The Complexity of the Problem
                        4. 4.1.4 The Purpose of the Studies
                        1. 4.2.1 The Source of Dust
                        2. 4.2.2 The Collection of the Dust Particles for Testing
                        3. 4.2.3 The Shape of the Dust Particles
                        4. 4.2.4 The Identification of the Inorganic Materials
                        5. 4.2.5 The Organic Materials in Dust
                        6. 4.2.6 The Water Soluble Salts in Dust
                        1. 4.3.1 The Electrical Behavior
                          1. 4.3.1.1 Measurement of the Electric Charge
                          2. 4.3.1.2 The Electrostatic Attracting Force on the Particle
                          1. 4.3.2.1 Load Effect
                          2. 4.3.2.2 For Stationary Contacts
                          3. 4.3.2.3 For Sliding Contacts
                          4. 4.3.2.4 The Effect of Lubricants Coated on Contact Surface
                          5. 4.3.2.5 Sliding Contacts on Lubricated and Dusty Contacts
                          6. 4.3.2.6 Fretting (Micro Motion) on Lubricated and Dusty Contacts
                          1. 4.3.3.1 Dust Particles Create Pores
                          2. 4.3.3.2 Corrosion Appears as a Result of Dusty Water Solutions
                          3. 4.3.3.3 Indoor Exposure Results
                          4. 4.3.3.4 Construction of the Corrosion Stain
                          5. 4.3.3.5 Fretting Experiments on Dust Corroded Coupon Surfaces…209
                          1. 4.4.1 Explanation of the Special Features
                            1. 4.4.1.1 Covered by Accumulated Small Particles
                            2. 4.4.1.2 Accumulative Particles Caused by Micro Motion
                            3. 4.4.1.3 High and Erratic Contact Resistance
                            4. 4.4.1.4 The Element of Si Causes High Contact Resistance
                            5. 4.4.1.5 Organics Act as Adhesives
                            6. 4.4.1.6 Corrosion Products Trap the Dust Particles
                            7. 4.4.1.7 Difference Between Short Life and Longer Life Contacts
                            8. 4.4.1.8 Large Pieces of “Stepping Stones”
                            9. 4.4.1.9 The Performance of Failed Mobile Phones
                            1. 4.5.1 Two Micro Worlds in Contact
                              1. 4.5.1.1 Particles Get into the Contact Interface
                              1. 4.5.2.1 Adhesive Effect
                              2. 4.5.2.2 Trapping Effect of Corrosion Products
                              1. 4.5.3.1 Single Particle and Ideal Model
                              2. 4.5.3.2 Complicated Model – Number of Particles and Morphology of Contact Pairs
                              1. 4.5.4.1 Contact Failure
                              1. 4.6.1 Dust Test for Connectors
                              2. 4.6.2 Suggestion of the Dust Test
                              3. 4.6.3 Minimizing the Dust Problem
                                1. 4.6.3.1 Cleaning the Samples
                                1. 5. Power Connectors
                                  1. 5.1 Introduction
                                  2. 5.2 Types of Power Connectors
                                    1. 5.2.1 Plug-and-Socket Connectors
                                    2. 5.2.2 Wire Connectors
                                    3. 5.2.3 Bolted Connectors
                                    4. 5.2.4 Insulation Piercing Connectors
                                    1. 5.3.1 Definition of Conductor and Connector Systems
                                    2. 5.3.2 Factors Affecting Conductivity
                                      1. 5.3.2.1 Effect of Temperature
                                      2. 5.3.2.2 Effect of Lattice Imperfections
                                      3. 5.3.2.3 Magnetoresistance
                                      4. 5.3.2.4 Skin Effect
                                      1. 5.3.3.1 Copper and Copper Alloys
                                      2. 5.3.3.2 Aluminum and Its Alloys
                                      1. 5.3.4.1 Pure Metals and Alloys
                                      1. 5.4.1 Factors Affecting Reliability of Power Connections
                                      2. 5.4.2 Contact Area
                                      3. 5.4.3 Plastic Deformation
                                      4. 5.4.4 Elastic Deformation
                                      5. 5.4.5 Plated Contacts
                                      6. 5.4.6 Oxidation
                                      7. 5.4.7 Corrosion
                                        1. 5.4.7.1 Atmospheric Corrosion
                                        2. 5.4.7.2 Localized Corrosion
                                        3. 5.4.7.3 Crevice Corrosion
                                        4. 5.4.7.4 Pitting Corrosion
                                        5. 5.4.7.5 Pore Corrosion
                                        6. 5.4.7.6 Creep Corrosion
                                        1. 5.4.11.1 Factors Affecting Fretting
                                        2. 5.4.11.2 Mechanisms of Fretting
                                        3. 5.4.11.3 Examples of Fretting Damage in Power Connections
                                        4. 5.4.11.4 Compression Connectors
                                        5. 5.4.11.5 Bus-Stab Contacts
                                        6. 5.4.11.6 Plug-In Connectors
                                        7. 5.4.11.7 Bolted Connections
                                        8. 5.4.11.8 Fretting in Aluminum Connections
                                        9. 5.4.11.9 Effect of Electrical Current
                                        10. 5.4.11.10 Fretting in Coatings (Platings)
                                        11. 5.4.11.11 Fretting in Circuit Breaker Contact Materials
                                        1. 5.4.13.1 Example of Intermetallics Formation in Power Connections
                                        1. 5.5.1 Contact Area
                                        2. 5.5.2 Contact Pressure
                                        3. 5.5.3 Mechanical Contact Device
                                        4. 5.5.4 Disc-Spring (Belleville) Washers
                                        5. 5.5.5 Wedge Connectors
                                        6. 5.5.6 Automatic Splices
                                        7. 5.5.7 Dead-end Connectors
                                        8. 5.5.8 Shape-Memory Alloy Connector Devices
                                        9. 5.5.9 Coating (Plating)
                                        10. 5.5.10 Lubrication—Contact Aid Compounds
                                        11. 5.5.11 Bimetallic Inserts
                                        12. 5.5.12 Transition Washers
                                        13. 5.5.13 Multilam Contact Elements
                                        14. 5.5.14 Welded Connections
                                          1. 5.5.14.1 Thermite (Exothermic) Welding
                                          2. 5.5.14.2 Friction Welding
                                          3. 5.5.14.3 Explosion Welding
                                          4. 5.5.14.4 Resistance Welding
                                          5. 5.5.14.5 Resistance Brazing
                                          1. 5.5.15.1 Fired Wedge-Connectors
                                          2. 5.5.15.2 Stepped Deep Indentation Connectors
                                          1. 5.6.1 Economical Consequences of Contact Deterioration
                                          2. 5.6.2 Power Quality
                                          1. 5.7.1 Prognostic Model 1 for Contact Remaining Life
                                          2. 5.7.2 Prognostic Model 2 for Contact Remaining Life
                                          3. 5.7.3 Physical Model
                                          1. 5.8.1 Origin of Shape-Memory Effect
                                            1. 5.8.1.1 One-Way Memory Effect
                                            2. 5.8.1.2 Two-Way Memory Effect
                                            1. 5.9.1 Aluminum Foam Materials
                                              1. 5.9.1.1 Electrical and Thermal Properties of Foam Materials
                                              2. 5.9.1.2 Power Connection Applications
                                              1. 5.9.2.1 Applications of Copper Foam Materials
                                              1. 5.10.1 Examples of Improper Installations
                                              1. 5.11.1 Present Current-Cycling Tests
                                              1. 6.1 Introduction
                                              2. 6.2 Connectors
                                                1. 6.2.1 Functional Requirements
                                                2. 6.2.2 Types of Connectors
                                                3. 6.2.3 Mechanical Considerations
                                                1. 6.3.1 Contact Physics
                                                2. 6.3.2 Terminal Types
                                                3. 6.3.3 Other Electrical Contact Parameters
                                                1. 6.4.1 Surface Films
                                                2. 6.4.2 Fretting Corrosion of Tin–Plated Contacts
                                                3. 6.4.3 Examples of Contact Failures
                                                  1. 6.4.3.1 Automotive Position Sensor Connector
                                                  2. 6.4.3.2 Fuel Injector Connector
                                                  3. 6.4.3.3 Glowing Contacts
                                                  4. 6.4.3.4 Electrolytic Corrosion
                                                  5. 6.4.3.5 Incompatible Plating and Low Contact Force
                                                  1. 6.5.1 Vehicle Conditions
                                                  2. 6.5.2 High Power Connectors for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
                                                  3. 6.5.3 Aluminum Wiring Connections
                                                  4. 6.5.4 Connections for High-Vibration Environment
                                                  1. 7.1 Introduction
                                                  2. 7.2 Sliding Wear
                                                    1. 7.2.1 Early Studies
                                                    2. 7.2.2 Adhesion
                                                      1. 7.2.2.1 “Wiping” Contaminant from Contact Surfaces
                                                      2. 7.2.2.2 Mild and Severe
                                                      3. 7.2.2.3 Prow Formation
                                                      4. 7.2.2.4 Rider Wear
                                                      5. 7.2.2.5 Gold Platings: Intrinsic Polymers and Junction Growth
                                                      6. 7.2.2.6 Electroless Gold Plating
                                                      1. 7.2.6.1 Hardness
                                                      2. 7.2.6.2 Roughness
                                                      1. 7.2.7.1 Hardener Metal Content
                                                      1. 7.3.1 Background
                                                      2. 7.3.2 Fretting Regimes
                                                      3. 7.3.3 Static versus Dynamic Contact Resistance
                                                      4. 7.3.4 Field and Laboratory Testing Methodologies
                                                        1. 7.3.4.1 Generation of Fretting Displacement
                                                        2. 7.3.4.2 Determination of Contact Resistance
                                                        1. 7.3.5.1 Apparatus
                                                        2. 7.3.5.2 Metals Having Little or No Film-Forming Tendency
                                                        3. 7.3.5.3 Non-Noble Metals/Fretting Corrosion
                                                        4. 7.3.5.4 Frictional Polymer-Forming Metals
                                                        5. 7.3.5.5 Dissimilar Metals on Mating Contacts
                                                        1. 7.3.6.1 Gold-Based Systems
                                                        2. 7.3.6.2 Palladium-Based Systems
                                                        3. 7.3.6.3 Tin and Tin–Lead Alloy Systems
                                                        4. 7.3.6.4 Role of Underplate and Substrate
                                                        1. 7.3.7.1 Cycle Rate
                                                        2. 7.3.7.2 Wipe Distance
                                                        3. 7.3.7.3 Force
                                                        1. 7.3.12.1 Summary of Physical Processes
                                                        1. 7.4.1 Introduction
                                                        2. 7.4.2 Metallic Films
                                                          1. 7.4.2.1 Principles of Metallic Film Lubrication
                                                          2. 7.4.2.2 Sliding and Wiping Contacts
                                                          3. 7.4.2.3 Fretting Contacts
                                                          1. 7.4.3.1 Background
                                                          2. 7.4.3.2 Some Fundamental Properties of Lubricants
                                                          3. 7.4.3.3 Requirements
                                                          4. 7.4.3.4 Types of Fluid Lubricants: A Sliding Contact Investigation
                                                          5. 7.4.3.5 Control of Fretting Degradation
                                                          1. 7.4.5.1 Greases
                                                          2. 7.4.5.2 Solids
                                                          1. 8.1 Introduction
                                                            1. 8.1.1 Scope
                                                            2. 8.1.2 Requirements of Contact Finishes and Coatings
                                                            3. 8.1.3 Terminology
                                                            1. 8.2.1 Wrought Metals
                                                            2. 8.2.2 Electrodeposits and Electroless Deposits
                                                              1. 8.2.2.1 Thickness of Platings
                                                              2. 8.2.2.2 Plating Hardness
                                                              3. 8.2.2.3 Classification of Platings
                                                              1. 8.3.1 Origins of Porosity
                                                              2. 8.3.2 Tests of Porosity
                                                              3. 8.3.3 Relationships between Porosity, Thickness of Finish, and Substrate Roughness
                                                              4. 8.3.4 Effect of Underplatings, Flash Coatings, and Strikes on the Porosity of Electrodeposits
                                                              5. 8.3.5 Reduction in the Chemical Reactivity of Finishes by the Use of Underplates
                                                              1. 8.4.1 Thermal Diffusion
                                                              2. 8.4.2 Intermetallics
                                                              3. 8.4.3 Tin Whiskers
                                                              4. 8.4.4 Silver Whiskers
                                                              1. 8.5.1 Characteristics of Layered Systems
                                                                1. 8.5.1.1 Hardness
                                                                2. 8.5.1.2 Contact Resistance
                                                                1. 9. The Arc and Interruption
                                                                  1. 9.1 Introduction
                                                                  2. 9.2 The Fourth State of Matter
                                                                  3. 9.3 Establishing an Arc
                                                                    1. 9.3.1 Long-Gap Gas Breakdown
                                                                    2. 9.3.2 Vacuum Breakdown and Short-Gap Breakdown
                                                                    3. 9.3.3 The Volt–Current Characteristics of Separated Contacts
                                                                    1. 9.4.1 The Formation of the Electric Arc during Contact Closing
                                                                    2. 9.4.2 The Formation of the Electric Arc during Contact Opening
                                                                    1. 9.5.1 The Arc Column
                                                                    2. 9.5.2 The Cathode Region
                                                                    3. 9.5.3 The Anode Region
                                                                    4. 9.5.4 The Minimum Arc Current and the Minimum Arc Voltage
                                                                    5. 9.5.5 Arc Volt–Ampere Characteristics
                                                                    1. 9.6.1 The Diffuse Vacuum Arc
                                                                    2. 9.6.2 The Columnar Vacuum Arc
                                                                    3. 9.6.3 The Vacuum Arc in the Presence of a Transverse Magnetic Field
                                                                    4. 9.6.4 The Vacuum Arc in the Presence of an Axial Magnetic Field
                                                                    1. 9.7.1 Arc Interruption in Alternating Current Circuits
                                                                      1. 9.7.1.1 Stage 1 - Instantaneous Dielectric Recovery
                                                                      2. 9.7.1.2 Stage 2 - Decay of the Arc Plasma and Dielectric Reignition
                                                                      3. 9.7.1.3 Thermal Reignition
                                                                      1. 10.1 Introduction
                                                                      2. 10.2 Arcing Time
                                                                        1. 10.2.1 Arcing Time in an AC Circuit
                                                                        2. 10.2.2 Arcing Time in a DC Circuit
                                                                        3. 10.2.3 Activation of the Contact
                                                                        4. 10.2.4 Arcing Time in Very Low-Current DC Circuits: Showering Arcs
                                                                        1. 10.3.1 Erosion on Make and Erosion on Break
                                                                        2. 10.3.2 The Effect of Arc Current
                                                                        3. 10.3.3 The Effect of Contact Size
                                                                        4. 10.3.4 Determination of Contact Size in AC Operation
                                                                        5. 10.3.5 Erosion of Contacts in Low-Current DC Circuits
                                                                        6. 10.3.6 Erosion of Contacts in Low-Current AC Circuits
                                                                        1. 10.4.1 Butt Contacts
                                                                        1. 10.5.1 Welding of Closed Contacts
                                                                        2. 10.5.2 Welding during Contact Closure
                                                                        3. 10.5.3 Welding as Contacts Open
                                                                        1. 10.6.1 Silver–Based Contacts
                                                                        2. 10.6.2 Silver–Refractory Metal Contacts
                                                                        3. 10.6.3 Other Ambient Effects on the Arcing Contact Surface: Formation of Silica and Carbon and Contact Activation
                                                                        1. 11.1 Principles and Design of the Reed Switch
                                                                          1. 11.1.1 Pull-In Characteristics of a Reed Switch
                                                                          2. 11.1.2 Drop-Out Characteristics of a Reed Switch
                                                                          3. 11.1.3 Magnet Drive Characteristics of a Reed Switch
                                                                            1. 11.1.3.1 X–Y Characteristic H (Horizontal)
                                                                            2. 11.1.3.2 X–Z Characteristic H (Horizontal)
                                                                            3. 11.1.3.3 X–Y Characteristic V (Vertical)
                                                                            1. 11.2.1 Materials for Contact Plating
                                                                            2. 11.2.2 Ground Plating
                                                                            3. 11.2.3 Rhodium Plating
                                                                            4. 11.2.4 Ruthenium Plating
                                                                            5. 11.2.5 Other Platings
                                                                              1. 11.2.5.1 Copper Plating
                                                                              2. 11.2.5.2 Tungsten Plating
                                                                              3. 11.2.5.3 Rhenium Plating
                                                                              4. 11.2.5.4 Iridium Plating
                                                                              5. 11.2.5.5 Nitriding the Permalloy (Ni-Fe [48 wt%]) Blade Material
                                                                              1. 11.3.1 Surface Deactivation Treatment
                                                                                1. 11.3.1.1 Life Test of Samples Left for 24 Hours after Sealing
                                                                                2. 11.3.1.2 Life Test of Samples Left for One Week after Sealing
                                                                                3. 11.3.1.3 Life Test of Samples Left for One Month after Sealing
                                                                                4. 11.3.1.4 Life Test of Samples Left for Three Months, Six Months, and One Year after Sealing
                                                                                1. 11.4.1 Reed Relays
                                                                                2. 11.4.2 Applications of Magnetic-Driven Reed Switches
                                                                                1. 12.1 Introduction
                                                                                  1. 12.1.1 Common MEMS Actuation Methods
                                                                                  1. 13.1 Introduction and Device Classification
                                                                                  2. 13.2 Device Types
                                                                                    1. 13.2.1 Hand-Operated Switches
                                                                                      1. 13.2.1.1 The Rocker Switch Mechanism
                                                                                      2. 13.2.1.2 Lever Switches
                                                                                      3. 13.2.1.3 Slide Switches
                                                                                      4. 13.2.1.4 Rotary Switches
                                                                                      5. 13.2.1.5 Push-Button Switches
                                                                                      6. 13.2.1.6 Switching Devices Used below 0.5 A
                                                                                      1. 13.2.2.1 Limit Switches
                                                                                      2. 13.2.2.2 Thermostatic Controls
                                                                                      3. 13.2.2.3 Electro-Mechanical Relay
                                                                                      1. 13.3.1 Small-Amplitude Sliding Motion
                                                                                      2. 13.3.2 Contact Force and Contact Materials
                                                                                        1. 13.3.2.1 Contacts at Current Levels below 1 A
                                                                                        2. 13.3.2.2 Contacts at Current Levels between 1 and 30 A
                                                                                        3. 13.3.2.3 Contact Force
                                                                                        1. 13.4.1 Case Study (1): Hand-Operated Rocker-Switch Mechanism
                                                                                          1. 13.4.1.1 Moving-Contact Dynamics of a Rocker-Switch Mechanism
                                                                                          2. 13.4.1.2 Design Optimization of a Rocker-Switch Mechanism
                                                                                          1. 13.4.2.1 Moving Contact Dynamics at Opening
                                                                                          1. 13.4.3.1 Impact Mechanics
                                                                                          2. 13.4.3.2 The Coefficient of Restitution
                                                                                          3. 13.4.3.3 Impact Mechanics for a Pivoting Mechanism
                                                                                          4. 13.4.3.4 The Velocity of Impact
                                                                                          5. 13.4.3.5 Bounce Times
                                                                                          6. 13.4.3.6 Total Bounce Times
                                                                                          7. 13.4.3.7 Impact Times
                                                                                          8. 13.4.3.8 Design Parameters for the Reduction of Contact Bounce
                                                                                          1. 13.5.1 The Measurement of Contact Surfaces
                                                                                          2. 13.5.2 Three Dimensional (3-D) Surface Measurement Systems
                                                                                            1. 13.5.2.1 Contact Systems
                                                                                            2. 13.5.2.2 Non-Contact Systems
                                                                                            1. 13.6.1 Low-Current DC Arcs
                                                                                              1. 13.6.1.1 Arc Voltage Characteristics
                                                                                              2. 13.6.1.2 Voltage Steps below 7 A
                                                                                              3. 13.6.1.3 Case Study (3): Arc Voltage, Current and Length under Quasi-Static Conditions for Ag/CdO Contacts
                                                                                              4. 13.6.1.4 Opening Speed and Arc Length
                                                                                              5. 13.6.1.5 Case Study (4): Automotive Systems
                                                                                              1. 13.6.2.1 Ag and Ag/MeO Contact Erosion/Deposition
                                                                                              1. 13.6.3.1 Typical Waveforms and Arc Energy
                                                                                              1. 13.6.4.1 Point-on-Wave (POW) Studies Using Ag/CdO Contact Materials
                                                                                              1. 13.7.1 Contact Welding on Make
                                                                                              2. 13.7.2 Reducing Contact Bounce
                                                                                              3. 13.7.3 Pre-Impact Arcing
                                                                                              4. 13.7.4 Influence of Velocity during the First Bounce
                                                                                                1. 13.7.4.1 The First Bounce
                                                                                                1. 13.8.1 Switch Design
                                                                                                2. 13.8.2 Break Operation
                                                                                                  1. 13.8.2.1 DC Operation
                                                                                                  2. 13.8.2.2 AC Operation
                                                                                                  1. 13.8.3.1 Design Parameters
                                                                                                  2. 13.8.3.2 Reducing Contact Bounce
                                                                                                  3. 13.8.3.3 Arcing during the Bounce Process
                                                                                                  1. 14.1 General Aspects of Switching in Air
                                                                                                    1. 14.1.1 Arc Chutes
                                                                                                    2. 14.1.2 Magnetic Blast Field
                                                                                                    3. 14.1.3 Arc Dwell Time on the Contacts
                                                                                                    4. 14.1.4 Sticking and Back-Commutation of the Arc
                                                                                                    1. 14.3.1 Principle/Requirements
                                                                                                    2. 14.3.2 Mechanical Arrangement
                                                                                                    3. 14.3.3 Quenching Principle and Contact and Arc Chute Design
                                                                                                    4. 14.3.4 Contact Materials
                                                                                                    5. 14.3.5 Trends
                                                                                                      1. 14.3.5.1 Contactors versus Electronics
                                                                                                      2. 14.3.5.2 Vacuum Contactors
                                                                                                      3. 14.3.5.3 Hybrid Contactors
                                                                                                      4. 14.3.5.4 Integration with Electronic Systems
                                                                                                      1. 14.4.1 Principle/Requirements
                                                                                                      2. 14.4.2 General Arrangement
                                                                                                      3. 14.4.3 Quenching Principle and Design of Arc Chute and Contact System
                                                                                                        1. 14.4.3.1 Quenching Principles
                                                                                                        2. 14.4.3.2 Arc Chute and Contact Arrangement
                                                                                                        1. 14.4.8.1 Arcs Squeezed in Narrow Insulating Slots
                                                                                                        2. 14.4.8.2 Reversible Phase Changes of Liquid or Low-Melting Metal
                                                                                                        3. 14.4.8.3 Temperature-Dependent Ceramics or Polymers
                                                                                                        4. 14.4.8.4 Contact Resistance between Powder Grains
                                                                                                        5. 14.4.8.5 Superconductors
                                                                                                        1. 14.5.1 Simulation of Low-Voltage Arcs
                                                                                                          1. 14.5.1.1 General Principle of Simulation
                                                                                                          2. 14.5.1.2 Arc Roots on Cathode and Anode
                                                                                                          3. 14.5.1.3 Radiation
                                                                                                          4. 14.5.1.4 Interaction between Arc and Electrode or Wall Material (Ablation)
                                                                                                          5. 14.5.1.5 Plasma Properties
                                                                                                          6. 14.5.1.6 Simplification by Porous Media
                                                                                                          1. 14.6.1 Principle/Applications
                                                                                                          2. 14.6.2 Design
                                                                                                          3. 14.6.3 Recovery and the Influence of the Design
                                                                                                          4. 14.6.4 Contact Materials for Vacuum Interrupters and Their Influence on Switching
                                                                                                            1. 14.6.4.1 Requirements
                                                                                                            2. 14.6.4.2 Arc Interruption
                                                                                                            3. 14.6.4.3 Interruption of High Frequency Transients
                                                                                                            4. 14.6.4.4 Current Chopping
                                                                                                            1. 15.1 Introduction
                                                                                                            2. 15.2 Arc Fault Circuit Interrupters (AFCIs)
                                                                                                            3. 15.3 Arcing Faults
                                                                                                              1. 15.3.1 Short-Circuit Arcing
                                                                                                              2. 15.3.2 Series Arcing
                                                                                                              1. 15.5.1 Frequency
                                                                                                              2. 15.5.2 Electrode Materials
                                                                                                              3. 15.5.3 Arc Fault Current
                                                                                                              4. 15.5.4 Cable Impedance and Cable Length Effects
                                                                                                              1. 16. Arcing Contact Materials
                                                                                                                1. 16.1 Introduction
                                                                                                                2. 16.2 Silver Metal Oxides
                                                                                                                3. 16.2.1 Types
                                                                                                                4. 16.2.2 Manufacturing Technology
                                                                                                                5. 16.2.2.1 Internal Oxidation
                                                                                                                6. 16.2.2.2 Post-Oxidized Internally Oxidized Parts (Process B 1.0)
                                                                                                                7. 16.2.2.3 One-Sided Internally Oxidized Parts (Process B 2.01)
                                                                                                                8. 16.2.2.4 Preoxidized Internally Oxidized Parts (Process B.2.02)
                                                                                                                9. 16.2.2.5 Powder Metallurgical (PM) Silver Metal Oxides (Processes C and D)
                                                                                                                10. 16.2.3 Electrical Performance Factors
                                                                                                                11. 16.2.3.1 AC versus DC Testing
                                                                                                                12. 16.2.3.2 High Current Inrush DC Automotive and AC Loads
                                                                                                                13. 16.2.3.3 Inductive Loads
                                                                                                                14. 16.2.3.4 Silver–Tin Oxide Type Materials and Additives
                                                                                                                15. 16.2.3.5 Material Factor
                                                                                                                16. 16.2.3.6 Interpreting Material Research, Example from Old Silver Cadmium Oxide Research
                                                                                                                17. 16.2.4 Material Considerations Based on Electrical Switching Characteristics
                                                                                                                18. 16.2.4.1 Erosion/Materials Transfer/Welding
                                                                                                                19. 16.2.5 Transfer/Welding
                                                                                                                20. 16.2.6 Erosion/Mechanisms/Cracking
                                                                                                                21. 16.2.7 Erosion/Arc Mobility
                                                                                                                22. 16.2.8 Interruption Characteristics
                                                                                                                23. 16.2.9 Contact Resistance
                                                                                                                24. 16.2.9.1 Summary Metal Oxides
                                                                                                                25. 16.3 Silver Refractory Metals
                                                                                                                26. 16.3.1 Manufacturing Technology
                                                                                                                27. 16.3.1.1 Manufacturing Technology/Press Sinter Repress (Process D 1.0)
                                                                                                                28. 16.3.2 Material Technology/Extruded Material
                                                                                                                29. 16.3.2.1 Material Technology/Liquid Phase Sintering (Process D 2.0)
                                                                                                                30. 16.3.2.2 Material Technology/Press Sinter Infiltration (Process D 3.0)
                                                                                                                31. 16.3.3 Metallurgical/Metallographic Methods
                                                                                                                32. 16.3.3.1 Metallurgical/Metallographic Methods/Preparation
                                                                                                                33. 16.3.3.2 Metallurgical/Metallography/Quantitative Analysis
                                                                                                                34. 16.3.4 Metallurgical/Structure/Strength and Toughness
                                                                                                                35. 16.3.5 Electrical Properties (EP)
                                                                                                                36. 16.3.5.1 EP/Arc Erosion/Microstructure and Properties
                                                                                                                37. 16.3.5.2 EP/Arc Erosion/Silver Refractory
                                                                                                                38. 16.3.5.3 EP/Graphite Additions to Silver Tungsten and Silver Tungsten Carbide
                                                                                                                39. 16.3.5.4 EP/Copper Refractory Metals
                                                                                                                40. 16.3.5.5 EP/Erosion/Summary
                                                                                                                41. 16.3.5.6 EP/Composite Refractory Materials/Contact Resistance
                                                                                                                42. 16.4 Vacuum Interrupter Materials
                                                                                                                43. 16.5 Tungsten Contacts
                                                                                                                44. 16.6 Non-Noble Silver Alloys
                                                                                                                45. 16.6.1 Fine Silver
                                                                                                                46. 16.6.2 Hard Silver and Silver–Copper Alloys
                                                                                                                47. 16.7 Silver–Nickel Contact Materials
                                                                                                                48. 16.8 Silver Alloys and Noble Metals
                                                                                                                49. 16.8.1 Palladium and Silver–Palladium Alloys
                                                                                                                50. 16.8.2 Platinum
                                                                                                                51. 16.9 Silver–Graphite Contact Materials
                                                                                                                52. 16.10 Conclusion
                                                                                                                53. Acknowledgements
                                                                                                                54. References
                                                                                                                1. 17.1 Introduction
                                                                                                                2. 17.1.1 Arc-Induced Contact Stresses and Interface Bond Quality
                                                                                                                3. 17.2 Staked Contact Assembly Designs
                                                                                                                4. 17.2.1 Contact Rivets
                                                                                                                5. 17.2.1.1 Solid Rivets
                                                                                                                6. 17.2.1.2 Machine-Made Composite Rivets
                                                                                                                7. 17.2.1.3 Brazed Composite Rivets
                                                                                                                8. 17.2.1.4 Rivet Staking
                                                                                                                9. 17.3 Welded Contact Assembly Designs
                                                                                                                10. 17.3.1 Resistance Welding
                                                                                                                11. 17.3.1.1 Button Welding
                                                                                                                12. 17.3.1.2 Wire-Welding
                                                                                                                13. 17.3.1.3 Contact Tape Welding
                                                                                                                14. 17.3.2 Special Welding Methods
                                                                                                                15. 17.3.2.1 Percussion Welding
                                                                                                                16. 17.3.2.2 Ultrasonic Welding of Contacts
                                                                                                                17. 17.3.2.3 Friction Welding of Contacts
                                                                                                                18. 17.4 Brazed Contact Assembly Designs
                                                                                                                19. 17.4.1 Methods for Brazing Individual Parts
                                                                                                                20. 17.4.1.1 Torch Brazing
                                                                                                                21. 17.4.1.2 Induction Brazing
                                                                                                                22. 17.4.1.3 Direct and Indirect Resistance Brazing
                                                                                                                23. 17.4.1.4 Furnace Brazing
                                                                                                                24. 17.4.1.5 Continuous Laminated Strip Brazing, “Toplay”
                                                                                                                25. 17.4.1.6 Brazed Assembly Quality Control Methods
                                                                                                                26. 17.5 Clad Metals, Inlay, and Edge Lay
                                                                                                                27. 17.6 Contact Alloys for Non-Arcing Separable Contacts
                                                                                                                28. 17.6.1 Gold and Gold Alloys
                                                                                                                29. 17.6.2 Manufacturing Technology
                                                                                                                30. 17.6.3 Physical and Chemical Properties
                                                                                                                31. 17.6.4 Metallurgical Properties
                                                                                                                32. 17.6.5 Contact Applications and Performance
                                                                                                                33. Acknowledgments
                                                                                                                34. References
                                                                                                                1. 18.1 Objectives
                                                                                                                2. 18.2 Device Testing and Model Switch Testing
                                                                                                                3. 18.2.1 Device Testing
                                                                                                                4. 18.2.2 Model Switch Testing
                                                                                                                5. 18.3 Electrical Contact Testing Variables
                                                                                                                6. 18.3.1 AC versus DC Testing
                                                                                                                7. 18.3.2 Switching Load Type
                                                                                                                8. 18.3.3 Opening and Closing Velocity Effects
                                                                                                                9. 18.3.4 Contact Bounce
                                                                                                                10. 18.3.5 Contact Carrier Mass and Conductivity
                                                                                                                11. 18.3.6 Contact Closing Force and Over Travel
                                                                                                                12. 18.3.7 Enclosed and Open Contact Devices
                                                                                                                13. 18.3.8 Testing at Different Ambient Temperatures
                                                                                                                14. 18.3.9 Erosion Measurement
                                                                                                                15. 18.3.10 Summary Electrical Contact Testing Variables
                                                                                                                16. 18.4 Electrical Testing Result Types and Measurement Methods
                                                                                                                17. 18.4.1 Contact Resistance
                                                                                                                18. 18.4.1.1 Model Testing
                                                                                                                19. 18.4.1.2 Evaluation and Presentation of Results
                                                                                                                20. 18.4.2 Contact Bounce Measurement
                                                                                                                21. 18.4.2.1 Model Testing
                                                                                                                22. 18.4.2.2 Evaluation
                                                                                                                23. 18.4.3 Contact Welding Measurement
                                                                                                                24. 18.4.3.1 Weld Strength Measured
                                                                                                                25. 18.4.4 Contact Erosion Measurements
                                                                                                                26. 18.4.4.1 Accelerated and Model Testing
                                                                                                                27. 18.4.4.2 Extrapolation at Rated Stress
                                                                                                                28. 18.4.4.3 Increase of the Switching Frequency
                                                                                                                29. 18.4.4.4 Testing at Increased Electrical Load
                                                                                                                30. 18.4.4.5 Fixed-Gap Models
                                                                                                                31. 18.4.4.6 Moving Contact Models
                                                                                                                32. 18.4.4.7 Evaluation and Presentation of Results
                                                                                                                33. 18.4.5 AC Arc Reignition Measurement
                                                                                                                34. 18.4.6 Arc Motion Measurements
                                                                                                                35. 18.4.6.1 Measurement
                                                                                                                36. 18.4.6.2 Electronic Optical
                                                                                                                37. 18.4.6.3 Model Switch Arc Motion Control
                                                                                                                38. 18.4.6.4 Evaluation and Presentation of Results
                                                                                                                39. 18.4.7 Arc-Wall Interaction Measurements
                                                                                                                40. References
                                                                                                                1. 19.1 Introduction
                                                                                                                2. 19.2 Organic Contamination and Activation
                                                                                                                3. 19.2.1 The Phenomena
                                                                                                                4. 19.2.2 Sources of Organic Vapors
                                                                                                                5. 19.2.3 Processes of Contact Activation
                                                                                                                6. 19.2.4 Activation Effects
                                                                                                                7. 19.2.5 Activation and Contact Resistance Problems
                                                                                                                8. 19.2.6 Methods for Detecting Carbon Contamination
                                                                                                                9. 19.3 Mineral Particulate Contamination of Arcing Contacts
                                                                                                                10. 19.4 Silicone Contamination of Arcing Contacts
                                                                                                                11. 19.4.1 Contamination from Silicone Vapors
                                                                                                                12. 19.4.2 Contamination from Silicone Migration
                                                                                                                13. 19.4.3 Summary of Silicone Contamination Mechanisms
                                                                                                                14. 19.5 Lubricants with Refractory Fillers
                                                                                                                15. 19.6 Oxidation of Contact Materials
                                                                                                                16. 19.7 Resistance Effects from Long Arcs
                                                                                                                17. Acknowledgments
                                                                                                                18. References
                                                                                                                1. 20. Sliding Electrical Contacts (Graphitic Type Lubrication)
                                                                                                                  1. 20.1 Introduction
                                                                                                                  2. 20.2 Mechanical Aspects
                                                                                                                  3. 20.2.1 Hardness
                                                                                                                  4. 20.2.2 Friction and Wear
                                                                                                                  5. 20.2.3 Tunnel Resistance and Vibration
                                                                                                                  6. 20.3 Chemical Aspects
                                                                                                                  7. 20.3.1 Oxidation
                                                                                                                  8. 20.3.2 Moisture Film
                                                                                                                  9. 20.4 Electrical Effects
                                                                                                                  10. 20.4.1 Constriction Resistance
                                                                                                                  11. 20.4.2 Film Resistance
                                                                                                                  12. 20.4.3 Fundamental Aspects of Commutation
                                                                                                                  13. 20.4.4 Equivalent Commutation Circuit and DC Motor Driving Automotive Fuel Pump
                                                                                                                  14. 20.4.5 Arc Duration and Residual Current
                                                                                                                  15. 20.5 Thermal Effects
                                                                                                                  16. 20.5.1 Steady State
                                                                                                                  17. 20.5.2 Actual Temperature
                                                                                                                  18. 20.5.3 Thermal Mound
                                                                                                                  19. 20.6 Brush Wear
                                                                                                                  20. 20.6.1 Holm’s Wear Equation
                                                                                                                  21. 20.6.2 Flashes and Smutting
                                                                                                                  22. 20.6.3 Polarities and Other Aspects
                                                                                                                  23. 20.7 Brush Materials and Abrasion
                                                                                                                  24. 20.7.1 Electro- and Natural Graphite Brushes
                                                                                                                  25. 20.7.2 Metal Graphite Brush and Others
                                                                                                                  26. 20.8 Summary
                                                                                                                  27. References
                                                                                                                  1. 21.1 Introduction
                                                                                                                  2. 21.2 Brush Materials
                                                                                                                  3. 21.2.1 Electrographite
                                                                                                                  4. 21.2.2 Carbon-Graphite
                                                                                                                  5. 21.2.3 Graphite
                                                                                                                  6. 21.2.4 Resin-Bonded
                                                                                                                  7. 21.2.5 Metal-Graphite
                                                                                                                  8. 21.2.6 Altitude-Treated Brushes
                                                                                                                  9. 21.3 Brush Applications
                                                                                                                  10. 21.3.1 Minature Motors
                                                                                                                  11. 21.3.2 Fractional Horsepower Motors
                                                                                                                  12. 21.3.2.1 Wound Field/Permanent Magnet-Motor Characteristics
                                                                                                                  13. 21.3.3 Automotive Brush Applications
                                                                                                                  14. 21.3.3.1 Auxiliary Motors
                                                                                                                  15. 21.3.3.2 Alternators
                                                                                                                  16. 21.3.3.3 Starter Motors
                                                                                                                  17. 21.3.4 Industrial Brushes
                                                                                                                  18. 21.3.5 Diesel Electric Locomotive Brushes
                                                                                                                  19. 21.3.6 Aircraft and Space Brushes
                                                                                                                  20. 21.3.7 Brush Design
                                                                                                                  1. 22.1 Introduction
                                                                                                                  2. 22.2 Sliding Contact—The Micro Perspective
                                                                                                                  3. 22.2.1 Mechanical Aspects
                                                                                                                  4. 22.2.2 Motion Initiation (Pre-Sliding)
                                                                                                                  5. 22.2.3 Friction Forces
                                                                                                                  6. 22.2.4 Motion Continuation
                                                                                                                  7. 22.2.5 Adhesion
                                                                                                                  8. 22.2.6 Adhesive Transfer
                                                                                                                  9. 22.2.7 Plowing, or “Two-Body,” Abrasion
                                                                                                                  10. 22.2.8 Hard Particle, or “Three-Body,” Abrasion
                                                                                                                  11. 22.2.9 Motion Over Time
                                                                                                                  12. 22.3 Electrical Performance
                                                                                                                  13. 22.3.1 Contact Resistance Variation (Noise)
                                                                                                                  14. 22.3.2 Non-Ohmic Noise
                                                                                                                  15. 22.3.3 Non-Linear Noise (Frequency Dependent)
                                                                                                                  16. 22.3.4 Contact Impedance
                                                                                                                  17. 22.3.5 Data Integrity
                                                                                                                  18. 22.4 Micro-Environment of Contact Region
                                                                                                                  19. 22.4.1 Film Forming on the a-Spots
                                                                                                                  20. 22.4.2 Unintentional Contamination
                                                                                                                  21. 22.4.2.1 Particulates
                                                                                                                  22. 22.4.2.2 Contamination or “Air Pollution”
                                                                                                                  23. 22.4.2.3 Organic Off-Gasses
                                                                                                                  24. 22.4.2.4 Friction Polymers
                                                                                                                  25. 22.4.3 Lubrication (Intentional Contamination)
                                                                                                                  26. 22.4.4 Lubrication Modes (Anaerobic and Aerobic)
                                                                                                                  27. 22.4.4.1 Anaerobically Lubricated Contacts
                                                                                                                  28. 22.4.4.2 Aerobically Lubricated Contacts
                                                                                                                  29. 22.4.4.3 Temperature Extremes
                                                                                                                  30. 22.4.4.4 Submerged in Flammable Fuels
                                                                                                                  31. 22.4.4.5 Low-Pressure/Vacuum Operation
                                                                                                                  32. 22.4.4.6 Vapor and Gas Lubrication
                                                                                                                  33. 22.5 Macro Sliding Contact
                                                                                                                  34. 22.5.1 Counterface Configuration
                                                                                                                  35. 22.5.1.1 Flat Surfaces
                                                                                                                  36. 22.5.1.2 Cylindrical Surfaces
                                                                                                                  37. 22.5.1.3 Counterface Contact Shapes
                                                                                                                  38. 22.5.2 Real versus Apparent Area of Contact
                                                                                                                  39. 22.5.3 Brush Configurations
                                                                                                                  40. 22.5.3.1 Cartridge Brush
                                                                                                                  41. 22.5.3.2 Cantilever Composite Brush
                                                                                                                  42. 22.5.3.3 Cantilever Metallic Finger
                                                                                                                  43. 22.5.3.4 Cantilever Wire Brush
                                                                                                                  44. 22.5.3.5 Multifilament or Fiber Brush
                                                                                                                  45. 22.5.3.6 Benefits of Multiple Brushes
                                                                                                                  46. 22.5.4 Forces on the Brush
                                                                                                                  47. 22.6 Materials for Sliding Contacts
                                                                                                                  48. 22.6.1 Materials for Counterfaces
                                                                                                                  49. 22.6.2 Solid Lubricated Composite Materials for Brushes
                                                                                                                  50. 22.6.3 Wire Brush Materials Criteria
                                                                                                                  51. 22.7 Friction and Wear Characteristics
                                                                                                                  52. 22.7.1 Friction
                                                                                                                  53. 22.7.2 Wear
                                                                                                                  54. 22.8 Contact Parameters and Sliding-Contact Assemblies
                                                                                                                  55. 22.8.1 Contact Noise
                                                                                                                  56. 22.8.2 Slip Rings as Transmission Lines
                                                                                                                  57. 22.8.3 Results of Normal Operation
                                                                                                                  58. 22.9 Future
                                                                                                                  59. 22.10 Summary
                                                                                                                  60. Acknowledgments
                                                                                                                  61. References
                                                                                                                  1. 23.1 Introduction
                                                                                                                  2. 23.1.1 Fiber Brushes for Power
                                                                                                                  3. 23.1.2 Diversification of Applications
                                                                                                                  4. 23.1.3 Outline of Chapter
                                                                                                                  5. 23.2 Sliding Wear of Multi-Fiber Brushes
                                                                                                                  6. 23.2.1 Adhesive Wear
                                                                                                                  7. 23.2.2 Holm-Archard Wear Equation
                                                                                                                  8. 23.2.3 Low Wear Equilibrium
                                                                                                                  9. 23.2.4 High Wear Regime
                                                                                                                  10. 23.2.5 Plastic and Elastic Contact
                                                                                                                  11. 23.2.6 Critical or Transition Brush Pressure
                                                                                                                  12. 23.2.7 Wear of Fiber Brushes
                                                                                                                  13. 23.2.8 Effects of Sliding Speed
                                                                                                                  14. 23.2.9 Effect of Arcing and Bridge Transfer
                                                                                                                  15. 23.3 Surface Films, Friction, and Materials Properties
                                                                                                                  16. 23.3.1 Thin Film Behavior
                                                                                                                  17. 23.3.2 Water Molecules
                                                                                                                  18. 23.3.3 Film Disruption
                                                                                                                  19. 23.3.3 Lubrication
                                                                                                                  20. 23.4 Electrical Contact
                                                                                                                  21. 23.4.1 Dependence of Electrical Resistance on Fiber Brush Construction
                                                                                                                  22. 23.5 Brush Dynamics
                                                                                                                  23. 23.5.1 Speed Effect
                                                                                                                  24. 23.6 Future
                                                                                                                  25. 23.7 Summary
                                                                                                                  26. Acknowledgments
                                                                                                                  27. References
                                                                                                                  1. 24. Useful Electric Contact Information
                                                                                                                    1. 24.1 Introduction
                                                                                                                    2. 24.2 Notes to the Tables
                                                                                                                    3. References
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                                                                                                                    Product information

                                                                                                                    • Title: Electrical Contacts, 2nd Edition
                                                                                                                    • Author(s): Paul G. Slade
                                                                                                                    • Release date: December 2017
                                                                                                                    • Publisher(s): CRC Press
                                                                                                                    • ISBN: 9781351832717